Arlene Bjugstad, Jodi Berger Cardoso, Jessica Hernández Ortiz, & Jessica Borelli
May 5, 2026
Families from Central America (e.g., El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras) often migrate to the United States under conditions of extreme hardship. Violence, political instability, economic deprivation, and threats from organized crime have forced many parents to make difficult decisions to protect themselves, their children, and extended family (Martin, 2014). For these families, migration is rarely a single event--it is a prolonged process that can involve years of separation, dangerous journeys, and ongoing uncertainty. Research on immigrant mental health has documented elevated exposure to traumatic events among children and families who migrate from Latin America (Cleary et al., 2018; Navarro Flores et al., 2023). Yet trauma does not occur in isolation. Understanding the experiences of immigrant families requires examining how trauma and resilience manifest within relationships and across generations.
A recent qualitative study explored these processes among mother-youth dyads who migrated from Central America and experienced migration-related separation. Interview with families revealed three interconnected dynamics shaping their experiences: 1) the multi directionality of trauma transmission within family systems, 2) ongoing systemic traumatization, and 3) a culturally grounded resilience process described by participants as saliendo adelante, roughly translated as "moving forward". Together, findings from this study highlight the importance of cultural values, family, and community relationships in shaping how immigrant families from Central America navigate and make meaning of adversity.
Migration, Family Separation, and Cumulative Trauma
Many Central American families migrate under conditions of forced displacement due to violence and instability. Migration journeys can expose families to additional trauma, including extortion, assault, and exploitation. Parents often migrate first and later reunite with their children, a process known as serial or stage migration (Marcus et al., 2024). In the study, the average separation between mothers and children was approximately five years. Such prolonged separations occur during key developmental periods and have been associated with increased risk of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress symptoms among immigrant youth (Venta et al., 2021). However, the study also shows that the psychological effects of these experiences are not confined to individual family members. Instead, trauma often reverberates throughout family systems and across generations.
Trauma is Not Unidirectional
Traditional models of intergenerational trauma assume that trauma flows from parents to children. Yet mothers and youth in this study described trauma as multidirectional, affecting family members across generations and relationships. For example, parents often experienced profound distress after learning about traumatic experiences their children endured while separated from them. Feelings of guilt, grief, and helplessness intensified parental stress and sometimes retraumatized caregivers who had already experienced violence and displacement.
At the same time, children carried the emotional weight of their family's history, including stories of violence affecting parents, grandparents, siblings, and extended family. These narratives shaped how youth understood their own lives and futures. This relational view of trauma suggests that effective responses must address the well-being of entire families and communities, rather than focusing solely on individual symptoms.
Systemic Trauma Beyond the Migration Journey
For many immigrant families, trauma does not end upon arrival in the United States. Participants described continued exposure to systemic forms of trauma, including immigration enforcement, detention, discrimination, and instability in obtaining resources to meet basic needs (i.e., housing, transportation, food). These experiences illustrate how trauma can be embedded within social and political systems. Structural conditions that create fear or instability may compound earlier trauma and affect family relationships and mental health. Scholars have emphasized that trauma must be understood within its broader historical and structural context, including colonial histories, geopolitical inequality, and policies that shape migration and settlement patterns (Abrego & Menjívar, 2022; Sotero, 2006). Responses to such trauma must include systemic approaches that advocate for the humane and just treatment of immigrants fleeing violence in their home countries so as to not continue to re-traumatize them.
"Saliendo Adelante": A Culturally Grounded Form of Resilience
Despite adversity faced by immigrant families from Central America, participants in this study consistently emphasized a powerful cultural value and shared family ethos that guides them, the desire to "salir adelante". Participants described saliendo adelante as both a goal and a process, which serves as a commitment to preserve and create opportunities for past and future generations. Mothers often framed migration as an act of sacrifice motivated by the desire to provide education, safety, and stability for their children. Children frequently recognized these sacrifices and expressed gratitude for their parents' efforts.
Within families, saliendo adelante functioned as a shared narrative that helped transform hardship into motivation. Rather than viewing traumatic experiences and migration solely through the lens of trauma, the concept of saliendo adelante emphasizes perseverance, hope, and collective resilience. These insights suggest that culturally grounded values may play an important role in supporting healing among immigrant families. Interventions that build on family strengths and cultural narratives may be particularly effective in addressing transgenerational trauma.
Moving Forward
Immigrant families from Central America face profound challenges across multiple stages of migration and in particular, in the current sociopolitical climate in both the U.S. and their countries of origin. Yet their experiences also reveal powerful sources of resilience rooted in family relationships and cultural values. Recognizing these strengths can help shift the narrative from one focused solely on vulnerability and risk to one that acknowledges the agency, perseverance, and hope that sustain immigrant families as they continue moving forward, always.
Discussion Questions
- How can practitioners engage in trauma-informed services with immigrants that focus on family and community systems, rather than individual members?
- How can practitioners, researchers, and policymakers incorporate culturally grounded concepts, such as saliendo adelante, into trauma-informed practices, programs, and policies?
About the Authors
Arlene Bjugstad (she/her), Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Social Work at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs. Her research focuses on culturally grounded, community-engaged approaches to mental health practice with Latino and immigrant populations across diverse settings. Drawing on over 15 years of practice experience in social service, educational, and community contexts, Dr. Bjugstad’s work emphasizes decolonized frameworks that promote wellbeing and equity among immigrant communities in the United States and globally.
Dr. Jodi Berger Cardoso is the Kantambu Latting Endowed Professor of Leadership and Change at the University of Houston, Graduate College of Social Work. She is a leading scholar on migration-related family separation and children’s mental health, and her work has been foundational in shaping how migration-related family separation and deportation are understood as threats to child and family well-being in immigrant communities. Dr. Cardoso is a practicing clinical social worker who works with humanitarian organizations to provide legal and mental health support to survivors of war, political and economic violence, child trauma, human trafficking, and family separation.
Jessica Hernandez Ortiz, Ph.D., is a postdoctoral psychology fellow at the University of Texas Medical Branch. Her scholarly interests are focused on mechanisms of risk and resilience for the psychosocial development and functioning of Latine immigrant youth.
Dr. Jessica Borelli is a professor of Psychology and the Associate Director of Clinical Training at University of California, Irvine. She is a practicing psychologist and the clinical director of Compass Therapy. Her work focuses on parent-child relationships and the development of relationship-based interventions to promote well-being. Connect with Dr. Borelli on LinkedIn.
Reference Article
Bjugstad, A., Cardoso, J. B., Hernández Ortiz, J., & Borelli, J. L. (2026). Saliendo adelante: Understanding trauma and resilience in immigrant families from Central America. Journal of Traumatic Stress. https://doi-org/10.1002/jts.70070